Conceptual Background; Geological history of the Earth: geological time-scale; geological formations of Ghana. Relative and absolute dating. phytolith analysis: History of Phytolith research, production, deposition and dissolution of phytolith, phytolith morphology, field techniques and research design, interpretation of phytolith assemblages, the role of phytoliths in paleo-environmental reconstruction; Economic importance of phytoliths.